Beyond the Board: Inside the Brain of a Chess Master

Daniel Bader

Illustrations by Maia Su

Arguably, one of the most difficult accomplishments in the world is earning a chess grandmaster title — a prestigious rank reserved for those who have accrued an extremely high rating on online chess platforms and performed exceptionally well in professional tournaments. A chess player named Levy Rozman — famous for his YouTube channel ‘Gotham Chess’ — has dedicated his life to producing online content and books that teach people how to play chess. Despite Rozman’s long career teaching chess and his rank among the top 1% of chess players in the world, he is not considered a grandmaster, which demonstrates how rare the title truly is. Out of the 600 million people who play chess worldwide, there are only about 1,800 grandmasters [1, 2]. Like Rozman, many chess players who dedicate their lives to learning chess theory never earn the title of grandmaster. However, some individuals become grandmasters before they reach adulthood [3, 4, 5]. For example, legendary American chess player Bobby Fischer became the United States chess champion at the age of 14, and he was officially named a grandmaster at 15 [3]. Why can some people strive towards earning the grandmaster title for their entire life while others reach this echelon before they can legally drive? Chess skill can be determined by several factors, including physical alterations to the brain from extensive training, genetic traits associated with cognition, and intuitive memory techniques [6, 7, 8]. Regardless of skill, practicing chess can improve our ability to withstand the cognitive effects of aging by increasing cognitive reserve, which is our brain’s ability to resist damage, solve problems, and cope with challenges [6, 7].

All the Right Moves: the Importance of Chunking

Chess is a tactical game in which advantages are obtained from the precise positioning of each piece in relation to the others. Prowess in the game of chess therefore requires strategy and specific methods of analysis. Of particular importance to chess is the brain’s ability to readily access and manipulate certain information for a short period of time, called working memory [8]. Chess experts can enhance their working memory through a technique called chunking, in which items are remembered more easily when they are purposely associated with other objects [9]. Put simply, chunking allows more objects to be recalled in the short term by coupling words or items into larger, more memorable groups. The way phone numbers are divided into three or four number sections is an example of everyday chunking as it allows one to memorize the whole phone number in ‘chunks.’ Additionally, the alphabet song divides the letters into smaller chunks, such as ‘L-M-N-O-P’ and ‘T-U-V,’ making it easier to remember. Chunking allows players to memorize chess positions from previous games more effectively [9].

Developing chunking memory is also key to recognizing familiar positions that help determine the strongest future moves in a game of chess [9]. In a memory task experiment, chess players of varying skill levels were asked to recall the exact position of their pieces at a particular point in a tournament game that they recently played [10]. Chess experts recounted almost the entire board correctly, while chess novices were only able to remember the position of about five pieces on the board [10]. Furthermore, when presented with random positions, grandmasters were able to recall the location of more pieces than novices, including positions that aren’t even technically possible in chess gameplay [10, 11]. Chess experts have also been found to create larger memory ‘chunks,’ that involve more pieces than chunks made by amateur players in both random set-ups and game positions [12]. The fact that grandmasters showed superior performance in memory retention of chess positions supports the notion that grandmasters utilize chunking more effectively than novices [10, 13]. By developing chunking abilities through repeated chess practice, chess experts can retain more information in their working memory, placing them in the optimal position to win [12].

Chunking may also play a role in how expert chess players respond to tasks associated with working memory and spatial recognition compared to non-experts [11]. Expert players respond to an impractical or impossible position in chess the same way that they may respond to a face missing a nose or an eye [11, 14]. When we see a face with distorted features, our prefrontal parietal network — a neural system linked to working memory, attention, and consciousness — demonstrates an increase in activity, since we search for familiar structures to help make sense of the face [14, 15]. An increase in neurological activity in the prefrontal parietal network is also observed when chess experts are introduced to impractical or impossible chess positions [14, 15]. In the same way that people chunk all the structural features of a face together, chess experts chunk pieces and consequently struggle to make sense of positions in which pieces are laid out in unexpected ways [14, 16]. This similarity in spatial learning-related brain activity demonstrates how chess experts are better able to apply chunking to chess gameplay [14, 17].

What’s the Move? Empathizing with the Enemy

Chess is not just about understanding the board; it also involves knowing your opponent. Along with well-developed chunking strategies, advanced chess players display a greater ability to predict the intentions of their opponents [18]. This phenomenon, known as theory of mind, describes the capacity to understand others’ mental states so as to predict their behavior; in other words, theory of mind is the ability to put yourself in someone else’s shoes [18, 19]. A classic example is a soccer goalie attempting to save a penalty kick; by asking themselves where they would kick the ball as an offensive player, the goalie can choose which side of the net to defend. In the context of chess, theory of mind involves seeing the board from the opponent’s perspective and imagining their thought process in order to predict their strategy [18, 20]. Repeated chess practice is associated with improved theory of mind in cognitive tasks [18]. An exercise recommended by one of the most accomplished chess players — Magnus Carlsen — is to play as both black and white, competing against yourself to improve your understanding of your opponent’s plans and develop a feel for the game [21]. Understanding your opponent’s objective is essential to attaining chess prowess [18]. Advanced theory of mind is associated with chess practice, and it allows expert players to better understand how their opponent might move [20]. In contrast, novice players, who have less developed theory of mind in the context of chess, often play inadequate moves in the hopes of masking their attack from their opponent [20]. Practicing chess improves one’s ability to take perspectives, providing players with a critical advantage in a game where predicting the tactics of their opponent is essential [18].

In addition to theory of mind, chess training can enhance a similar skill: one’s ability to empathize, or understand the thoughts and emotions of others [22]. Regions of the brain associated with chess and theory of mind are also associated with our ability to demonstrate empathy [22]. The temporoparietal junction — an area of the brain responsible for understanding the emotions and intentions of other people — is activated during chess and when experiencing empathy [22, 23]. Empathizing with a competitor allows a chess player to understand how they would react to a certain play and what they would elect to do next [22]. Therefore, advanced chess training may be associated with an increased ability to empathize, which in turn enhances the ability of expert chess players to predict the motives of their opponents [22, 23, 24].

It’s All in the Genes

While everyone can benefit from long-term chess practice, some people may be born with a natural aptitude that originates in their genetics [25]. A specific variation of the KIBRA gene, which contributes to memory-related structures in the brain, is found to be especially prevalent in chess experts. The KIBRA gene has two forms, C and T; elite chess players, especially grandmasters, have a significantly higher frequency of the T form compared to non-elite players [25]. The presence of the T form of the KIBRA protein is associated with increased hippocampal volume [26]. The hippocampus is an area of the brain responsible for memory processing and decision-making, and a larger hippocampal volume may be associated with enhanced working memory [26, 27]. People who express the T form of the KIBRA protein exhibit superior working memory to those with the C form [25, 27]. Additionally, the KIBRA T protein acts as a scaffolding protein in memory and spatial-learning regions of the brain [25]. Scaffolding proteins help regulate cell signaling by making cell communication as efficient as possible; in the case of the KIBRA T variation, an enhancement in signaling efficiency improves memory and spatial learning [25, 28]. By increasing the volume and metabolic efficiency in the cortex of the brain and hippocampus, expression of the T variation of KIBRA contributes to enhancement of working memory and spatial awareness, both of which are crucial to success in chess [25]. While working memory and spatial awareness can be developed via training, the prevalence of the KIBRA T variation in chess grandmasters demonstrates how inherited traits can provide an innate advantage that separates their skill from other high-level players [25].

We Have a Special Connection: How Practicing Chess Physically Alters the Brain

Frequent chess gameplay has been correlated with changes in gray matter volume in brain regions associated with chess gameplay [29]. Gray matter is composed of cell bodies, including those of neurons [30]. A reduction of gray matter volume in brain regions that are activated while people play chess has been connected to superior processing of information from neighboring brain regions [31]. Reduced gray matter volume in expert chess players is accompanied by increased connectivity in key regions of the brain, as well as superior control of concentration and improved chess problem-solving ability [31, 32]. Reduced gray matter in the caudate nuclei — which is composed of structures involved in learning and memory— is associated with decreased activity of a brain network called the default mode network (DMN) [32, 33, 34]. The DMN is a group of interconnected brain regions involved with inner monologue, self-reflection, and daydreaming, which are activities that are generally undesirable and distracting in chess [32, 35]. An increase in DMN deactivation is associated with improved concentration alongside other cognitive functions [32, 34]. Chess experts also exhibit a reduction of gray matter volume in the thalamus, which serves as a center for relaying sensory information [36, 37]. A decrease in thalamus volume of chess experts has been associated with increased connectivity from the thalamus to the fronto-parietal network, which is involved in working memory [36, 38]. Increased connectivity between key brain regions marked by reduced gray matter volume is related to the improvement of essential chess skills [32, 36].

Life-Long Rewards

Playing chess is associated with the stimulation of brain regions that are vulnerable to the deterioration of the brain that is characteristic of dementia, or the progressive loss of cognitive functions such as memory and reasoning [6, 39]. Alzheimer’s disease accounts for about 70% of dementia cases and is responsible for the gradual deterioration of neurons in memory-related regions of the brain such as the hippocampus [6, 40]. Early stages of Alzheimer’s disease also cause a reduction in hippocampal tissue, leading to a loss of connectivity between brain regions and drastically decreasing memory and spatial learning abilities [41]. Engaging in mentally stimulating and challenging activities are often encouraged in an attempt to preserve cognitive functions and a prevention against dementia, suggesting that chess could be effective at promoting cognitive reserve [6].

Though playing chess may not eradicate the possibility of receiving an Alzheimer’s disease diagnosis, people who occasionally play chess may develop the disease later than people who don’t play the game. In fact, people who frequently play board games like chess may be 35% less likely to develop dementia than those who do not. It is estimated that, between 2000 and 2050, the number of people over 60 years old will double, and the amount of people with neurodegenerative diseases will grow at a similar rate [6]. Chess could become an increasingly viable tool to challenge and stimulate the brain by enhancing cognitive reserve and building resilience to symptoms of dementia [6, 42].

Significant effort has been put into providing the elderly population, who are at the highest risk of developing dementia, with the ability to consistently play chess [43, 44]. Currently, there are chess-playing robots called ‘chessmen’ that each feature a camera and a robotic arm and serve as opposing chess players [44]. The ‘chessmen’ — who often play against elderly populations due to their heightened risk of developing dementia — may be useful in helping the elderly fortify neural connections and preserve cognitive functions [36, 44]. Similarly, a recently developed computer program called the Asynchronous Advantage Actor Critic (A3C) serves as a chess gameplay aid for people with cognitive disabilities [43]. A3C stimulates the brain by offering advice in chess gameplay when a player has not made a move in a long time, or has a low chance of winning the game. A3C promotes the use of cognitive skills by prioritizing learning new tactics and approaches rather than simply showing players how to win the game [43]. The ‘chessmen’ and A3C are two examples of modern technological applications of chess that are employed to promote cognitive health [43, 44].

Historic Game, Future Applications

Chess is a timeless international tradition and can continue to be a useful game for future generations as dementia becomes increasingly prevalent [6]. Practicing chess has been associated with the increased development of chunking, a technique which aids in expanding the boundaries of working memory [9, 45]. Chess gameplay is also connected to the development of theory of mind and empathy, demonstrating the influence of chess practice beyond memory retention [22, 23, 24]. Additionally, long-term chess play is associated with physical changes in memory-related brain regions such as the caudate nuclei and the thalamus [31, 32, 36]. These structures often experience a decrease in gray matter volume, which is associated with greater connectivity between other regions of the brain [31, 32, 36]. Expanding on the alterations correlated with chess gameplay, there is also a genetic component related to chess success: the KIBRA T protein variation is linked with improved performance in the game, although the presence of this gene does not limit the cognitive benefits of playing chess [25]. Not everyone will achieve the level of prowess required to become a chess grandmaster, but there is no denying the usefulness of regular chess gameplay; whether one is playing competitively or recreationally, chess offers competition and mental stimulation [24, 46].

References

1. Lu, Y., Li, W., Li, W. (2023). Official international mahjong: A new playground for AI research. Algorithms, 16(5), 235. doi:10.3390/a16050235

2. International Chess Federation (2024). FIDE ratings and statistics. Retrieved March 31, 2024 from https://ratings.fide.com/

3. Fernandez-Egea, E., Robbins, T. (2022). Bobby Fischer and the Delusions of a King in Logic. Brain, 145(5), 1570-1573. doi:10.1093/brain/awac140

4. Gobet, F., & Ereku, M. H. (2014).  Checkmate to deliberate practice: The case of Magnus Carlsen. Frontiers in Psychology, 5. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00878

5. Campitelli, G. (2015). Answering research questions without calculating the mean. Frontiers in Psychology, 6. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01379

6. Lillo-Crespo, M., Forner-Ruiz, M., Riquelme-Galindo, J., Ruiz-Fernández, D., & García-Sanjuan, S. (2019). Chess practice as a protective factor in dementia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(12), 2116. doi:10.3390/ijerph16122116

7. Stern, Y., Arenaza-Urquijo, E., Bartrés-Faz, D., Belleville, S., Cantilon, M., Chetelat, G., Ewers, M., Franzmeier, N., Kempermann, G., Kremen, W., Okonkwo, O.,  Scarmeas, N., Soldan, A., Udeh-Momoh, C., Valenzuela, M., Vemuri, P.,  Vuoksimaa, E. (2020). Whitepaper: defining and investigating cognitive reserve, brain reserve, and brain maintenance. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 16(9), 1305–1311. doi: 10.1016/j.jalz.2018.07.219

8. Cowan, N. (2017). The many faces of working memory and short-term storage. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 24(4), 1158-1170. doi: 10.3758/s13423-016-1191-6

9. Krivec, J., Bratko, I., Guid, M. (2021). Identification and conceptualization of procedural chunks in chess. Cognitive Systems Research, 69, 22-40. doi:10.1016/j.cogsys.2021.05.001

10. Sala, G., Gobet, F. (2016). Experts memory superiority for domain-specific random material generalizes across fields of expertise: A meta-analysis. Memory and Cognition, 45, 183-193. doi:10.3758/s13421-016-0663-2

11. Smith, E., Bartlett, J., Krawczyk, D., Basak, C. (2021). Are the advantages of chess expertise on visuo-spatial working-memory capacity domain or domain general. Memory and Cognition, 49, 1600-1616. doi:10.3758/s13421-021-01184-z

12. Gong, Y., Ericsson, K., Moxley, J. (2015). Recall of briefly presented chess positions and its relation to chess skill. PLoS 10(3). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0118756

13. Gobet, F., Lane, P. C. R., Croker, S., Chang, P. C. H., Jones, G., Oliver, I., & Pine, J. M. (2001). Chunking mechanisms in human learning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 5 (6), 236-243. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01662-4

14. Bartlett, J. C., Boggan, A. L., & Krawczyk, D. C. (2013). Expertise and processing distorted structure in chess. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00825

15. Pereira, T., Castro, M., Villafaina, S., Santos, A., Fuentes-Garcia, J. (2020). Dynamics of the prefrontal cortex during chess-based problem-solving tasks in competition-experienced chess players: An fNIR study. Sensors (Basel), 20(14), 3917. doi:10.3390/s20143917

16. Jenkin, Z. (2022). Perceptual learning and reasons-responsiveness. Noûs, 57(2), 481-508. doi:10.1111/nous.12425

17. Küchelmann, T., Velentzas, K., Essig, K., Koester, D., Schack, T. (2022). Expertise-dependent perceptual performance in chess tasks with varying complexity. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.986787

18. Gao, Q., Chen, W., Wang, Z., & Lin, D. (2019). Secret of the masters: Young chess players show advanced visual perspective taking. Frontiers in psychology, 10, 2407. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02407

19. Schurz, M., Radua, J., Aichhorn, M., Richlan, F., & Perner, J. (2014). Fractionating theory of mind: A meta-analysis of functional brain imaging studies. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 42, 9-34. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiorev.2014.01.009

20. Weimer, A. A., Cortez, N., & Razo, N. (2022). Does chess-playing relate to theory of mind? An examination of the interrelations among theory of mind, perspective-taking, and empathic concern in chess-players. Studies in Psychology, 43(2), 389-413. doi:10.1080/02109396.2022.2058266

21. Carlsen, M. (2014). Magnus Carlsen gives his top 13 chess tips + Bloopers. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FMaaHd7aFIs

22. Powell, J. L., Grossi, D., Corcoran, R., Gobet, F., & García-Fiñana, M. (2017) The neural correlates of theory of mind and their role during empathy and the game of chess: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Neuroscience, 355, 149-160. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.04.042

23. Krall, S. C., Rottschy, C., Oberwelland, E., Bzdok, D., Fox, P. T., Eickhoff, S. B., Fink, G. R., & Konrad, K. (2014). The role of the right temporoparietal junction in attention and social interaction as revealed by ALE meta-analysis. Brain Structure & Function, 220(2), 587-604. doi:10.1007/s00429-014-0803-z

24. Nanu, C. C., Coman, C., Bularca, M. C., Mesesan-Schmitz, L., Gotea, M., Atudorei, I., Turcu, I., & Negrila, I. (2023). The role of chess in the development of children - parents’ perspectives. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1210917

25. Ahmetov, I. I., Valeeva, E. V., Yerdenova, M. B., Datkhabayeva, G. K., Bouzid, A., Bhamidimarri, P. M., Sharafetdinova, L. M., Egorova, E. S., Semenova, E. A., Gabdrakhmanova, L. J., Yusupov, R. A., Larin, A. K., Kulemin, N. A., Generozov, E. V., Hamoudi, R., Kustubayeva, A. M., & Rees, T. (2023). KIBRA gene variant is associated with ability in chess and science. Genes, 14(1), 204. doi:10.3390/genes14010204 

26. Fogwe, L. A., Reddy, V., & Mesfin, F. S. (2023). Neuroanatomy, hippocampus. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. PMID:29489273

27. Witte, A. V., Köbe, T., Kerti, L., Rujescu, D., & Flöel, A. (2015). Impact of KIBRA polymorphism on memory function and the hippocampus in older adults. Neuropsychopharmacology, 41, 781-790. doi:10.1038/npp.2015.203

28. Su, Z., Dhusia, K., & Wu, Y. (2020). Understand the functions of scaffold proteins in cell signaling by a mesoscopic simulation method. Biophysical Journal, 119(10), 2116-2126. doi:10.1016/j.bpj.2020.10.002

29. RaviPrakash, H., Anwar, S. M., Biassou, N. M., & Bagci, U. (2021). Morphometric and functional brain connectivity differentiates chess masters from amateur players. Frontiers in neuroscience, 15, 629478. doi:10.3389/fnins.2021.629478 

30. Mercadante, A. A., & Tadi, P. (2023). Neuroanatomy, gray matter. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. PMID:31990494

31. Hänggi, J., Brütsch , K., Siegel, A. M., Jäncke, (2014). The architecture of the chess player׳s brain. Neuropsychologia. 6, 152-162. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.07.019

32. Duan, X., Liao, W., Liang, D., Qiu, L., Gao, Q., Liu, C, Gong, Q., & Chen, H. (2012). Large-scale brain networks in board game experts: Insights from a domain-related task and task-free resting state. PLoS ONE, 7(3). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0032532

33. Driscoll, M., Bollu, P., Tadi, P. (2023). Neuroanatomy, Nucleus Caudate. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. PMID:32491339

34. Premi, E., Gazzina, S., Diano, M., Girellia, A., Calhoun, V., Iraji, A., Gong, Q., Li, K., Cauda, F., Gasparotti, R., Padovani, A., Borroni, B., Magoni, M. (2020). Scientific Reports, 10. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-63984-8 

35. Raichle, M. E. (2015). The brain’s default mode network. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 38, 433-447. doi:10.1146/annurev-neuro-071013-014030

36. Wang, Y., Zuo, C., Wang, D., Tao, S., Hao, L. (2020). Reduced thalamus volume and enhanced thalamus and fronto-parietal network integration in the chess experts. Cerebral Cortex, 30 (10), 5560-5569. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhaa140

37. Torrico, T. J., & Munakomi, S. (2023). Neuroanatomy, thalamus. In StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. PMID:31194341

38. Wallis, G., Stokes, M., Cousijn, H., Woolrich, M., & Nobre, A. C. (2015). Frontoparietal and cingulo-opercular networks play dissociable roles in control of working memory. doi: 10.1162/jocn_a_00838

39. Arvanitakis, Z., & Bennett, D. A. (2019). What is dementia? JAMA, 322(17), 1728. doi:10.1001/jama.2019.11653

40. Breijyeh, Z., & Karaman, R. (2020). Comprehensive review on Alzheimer’s disease: Causes and treatment. Molecules, 25(24), 5789. doi:10.3390/molecules25245789

41. Rao, Y. L., Ganaraja, B., Murlimanju, B. V., Joy, T., Krishnamurthy, A., & Agrawal, A. (2022). Hippocampus and its involvement in Alzheimer’s disease: A review. 3 Biotech, 12(2). doi:10.1007/s13205-022-03123-4

42. World Health Organization (2023). Dementia. Retrieved March 13, 2024 from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia

43. Joypriyanka, M., & Surendran, R. (2023). Chess game to improve the mental ability of Alzheimer’s patients using A3C. 2023 Fifth International Conference on Electrical, Computer, and Communication Technologies, 1-6. doi:10.1109/ICECCT56650.2023.10179809

44. Chen, P.-J., Yang, S.-Y., Wang, C.-S., Muslikin, M., & Wang, M.-S. (2020). Development of a Chinese chess robotic system for the elderly using convolutional neural networks. Scopus. 12 (10), 3980. doi:10.3390/su12103980 

45. Huang, L., Awh, E. (2018). Chunking in working memory via content-free labels. Scientific Reports, 8, 23. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-18157-5

46. Eather, N., Wade, L., Pankowiak, A., Eime, R. (2023). The impact of sports participation on mental health and social outcomes in adults: A systematic review and the ‘Mental Health through Sport'' conceptual model. Systematic Reviews, 12 (1), 102. doi:10.1186/s13643-023-02264-8