Me, Myself and My Inner Voice: The Various Values of the Inner Monologue

Kanyinsola Arowolo

Illustrations by Zhengqiu Ge

Have you ever noticed that little voice in your head? The one that helps you make decisions and dissect the world around you? That’s your inner voice. It's a constant presence that helps you organize your daily thoughts [1]. The inner voice impacts everything from our confidence to our problem-solving abilities, making it a key player in our mental and emotional well-being [2, 3]. Over the course of development, baby babbles evolve into coherent private musings that ultimately give rise to the powerful inner voice [1]. The progression of the inner voice reveals a fascinating capacity of the mind to link memory, focus, and emotional resilience to the creation of an internal guide [3, 4]. Take a moment to reflect: how have you used your inner voice today? Perhaps you leaned on it to weigh the pros and cons of a tough decision, maintain focus during a challenging task, or find calm in a stressful moment. By consciously employing internal dialogue, you tap into a powerful tool that helps you navigate the world with clarity and intention.

Talk Less, Think More: How Private Speech Becomes the Inner Voice

Even though the inner voice is ingrained in our daily functioning, it has not always been a present force in our lives. Young children use private speech — the act of speaking aloud to oneself while engaged in a task — which serves as a major building block towards the internalization of language [1, 5]. Imagine a two-year-old named Johnny who has recently begun to speak aloud to himself in simple sentences; this marks the beginning of his private speech [6, 7]. While every individual develops at a unique pace, most children begin using private speech during early childhood [8]. Children in early childhood tend to struggle with switching between tasks that have different rules which is normally facilitated by inner voice. For example, a child is shown an image and asked to identify whether the animal depicted in the image swims or flies. Then the child is immediately asked to identify whether the image in front of them is in color or not. Younger children tend to perform worse on identification tasks like these when they are not given verbal cues. However, when they are encouraged to use verbal labels to guide their thinking, such as a reminder to focus on color identification, a young child’s performance improves. The need for assistance suggests that young children may not yet have an inner voice to help them switch between tasks, a skill that develops as they get older [1].

Use of private speech generally peaks around age five and gradually decreases afterward [1, 9, 10]. Five-year-olds benefit significantly from talking out loud when they’re learning something new and perform better on tasks with the help of private speech [1, 11]. Meanwhile, older children do not benefit from using private speech, indicating that their inner voice is likely more developed [1, 12]. Johnny’s overt private speech fades with age as he needs it less and less to perform tasks or switch between actions [13]. While he solves a puzzle, instead of voicing his train of thought in spoken musings like ‘Does my piece fit here?’, he approaches the logic problem through an internal monologue [14]. Overall, speech gradually turns inward, as private speech becomes less necessary and the ‘inner voice’ strengthens [15].

By about the age of eight, Johnny begins to utilize this newfound introspection to plan, remember, and solve problems in his mind [16]. While one’s external and internal voice is distinct, a number of brain regions are used in the production of both forms of language [17]. Broca’s area is essential for producing speech and it is activated during both verbal and inner speech [1, 18]. Additionally, the supplementary motor area (SMA) — a brain region involved in language processing — is activated during verbal and inner speech production, demonstrating its importance in both processes [19]. The overlapping activation of Broca’s area and the SMA in both inner and verbal speech indicate connections between the forms of language production [3, 19, 20]. As he grows, Johnny’s inner voice transforms from childhood chatter into an invaluable companion [3]. While our private speech never truly stops supporting us throughout our lives, the inner voice becomes the primary cognitive support throughout our lives.

Do You Remember? Role of Inner Voice in Memory

One of the vital functions of the inner voice is its role in memory storage and retrieval. Johnny is now a young student of age nine preparing for a spelling test. His inner voice can serve as a personal assistant in navigating his learning experiences [3]. Each night, he sits at his desk with a pen in hand, ready to commit new words to memory. With the inner voice as his trusted companion, he whispers the letters of each word in his mind. When he practices the word ‘elephant,’ he repeats to himself internally: ‘E-L-E-P-H-A-N-T, elephant.’ This inner verbal rehearsal keeps the letters fresh in his memory and ensures that he can recall them when he needs to [1]. Johnny’s hippocampus — a brain area crucial for forming and retrieving memories — organizes and stores the information that he rehearses [21]. The hippocampus is like a library where all of Johnny’s memories are cataloged [1, 22]. When he uses his inner voice to rehearse, it’s like reshelving books in the right order. The more Johnny practices, the easier it becomes for his hippocampus to retrieve those memories later, whether he’s answering questions in class or spelling the word ‘ELEPHANT’ [23, 24]. This collaboration between inner speech and the hippocampus shows that verbal rehearsal strengthens memory retention, making it easier for Johnny to access the information when it’s needed. [1, 22, 25, 26]. As Johnny prepares for his spelling test, his inner voice helps him stay focused [27]. Imagine him at his desk, distractions all around — the TV is on, and his dad is playing fetch with his dog. To drown out these distractions, Johnny mentally rehearses the spelling words: ‘E-L-E-P-H-A-N-T’, elephant; L-A-M-B, lamb.’ The engagement of his inner voice boosts his attention and increases concentration. Strategic use of inner speech can improve learning and retention [28].

The Concrete Jungle Where Thoughts are Played Out

As he enters his early 20s, Johnny’s inner voice rises to meet the ever-increasing challenges of his adult life, helping him to process information effectively while exerting minimal effort [1, 4, 29, 30]. As a businessman living alone in the bustling heart of New York City, Johnny needs to use effective decision-making and quick thinking to meet the demands of the concrete jungle. As he navigates the high-stakes world of Wall Street, Johnny finds himself managing the everyday complexities of adulthood — meal planning, social commitments, and budgeting. He sits at his kitchen table, laptop open and notepad ready, mentally preparing for the week ahead. ‘Alright, what’s for dinner this week?’ he prompts himself, activating his inner voice to prioritize his choices. Johnny’s inner voice guides his thoughts as he relies on his frontal cortex, the brain region responsible for critical thinking and problem-solving higher-order thinking [31, 32]. He reflects, ‘If I meal prep on Sunday, I’ll save time during the week,’ mapping out his schedule. By mentally rehearsing his week, Johnny streamlines the decision-making process and ensures proper preparation for what’s to come [33]. As he contemplates his options, Broca's area engages and helps him to articulate his inner thoughts clearly [15, 34]. Johnny structures his ideas: ‘Pasta is quick, but I should also add some veggies.’ Broca’s area selects the right words and proper grammatical structures, which allows Johnny to mentally articulate his plans for a balanced diet [15, 35, 36].

Not only does the inner voice help in planning, it also plays an important role in helping us pivot between different tasks. As the day unfolds, Johnny must manage a number of errands such as finalizing his grocery list, coordinating lunch plans with friends, and checking his budget. In this hectic environment, his inner voice becomes an invaluable asset. He might say to himself, ‘after grocery shopping, I need to call Sarah to confirm our dinner plans.’ Inner speech is particularly helpful in tasks that require switching between different responses and rules [1]. For instance, Johnny uses inner speech to enhance his ability to shift attention and manage multiple responsibilities [1]. When faced with distractions, his inner voice helps him maintain focus. Each decision — from planning meals to strategizing in work challenges and navigating social interactions—is influenced by his inner voice.

Girl, So Confusing: The Inner Voice in Emotional Regulation

As Johnny navigates adult life, emotional regulation becomes essential for managing his interpersonal relationships and the feelings that arise from them [1]. Emotional regulation refers to the processes that influence which emotions we have, when we have them, and how we experience and express them [37]. Emotional regulation allows Johnny to respond to challenging situations with resilience. The inner voice plays a pivotal role in the emotional regulatory processes, engaging various brain regions to help Johnny reflect and reframe his emotional experiences [2]. Imagine it’s Monday morning, and Johnny is running late for work. He has barely had any of his coffee when his phone buzzes with a text from his boss, asking for an update on the big project — one he thought was still a week away. Panic sets in as he rushes to the subway, dodging tourists and pigeons that seem intent on thwarting his progress. ‘Why do I always forget to check my calendar?’ he thinks. In this moment of chaos, his inner voice becomes a critical tool for processing his feelings and thoughts. Johnny is able to reflect on his past oversights and evaluate his options through the internal verbalization of his frustration. Using self-talk, Johnny identifies the urgency of his situation and reminds himself to make a mental note to check his calendar more regularly in the future. Engaging with his inner voice allows him to gain clarity amid the panic, guiding him toward a more organized approach to his day [38].

In stressful times, Johnny actively engages his inner voice to reflect on and reframe his emotions [21]. He takes a mental pause to assess the situation. ‘Okay, I don’t have to panic yet,’ he thinks. While his frontal cortex plays a significant role in evaluating his feelings and considering the consequences of his actions, this process also involves other interconnected brain regions [31]. The integration of areas responsible for emotional regulation, such as the amygdala, with other areas involved in language and thought supports his ability to think about his situation [5, 39]. This combined effort allows him to manage his emotional state more effectively. ‘If I can present a few solid points, I’ll be fine.’ This thought acts as a calming mantra and allows him to regain some composure. As he enters the conference room, he feels the familiar knot of anxiety tightening in his stomach; Instead of letting that anxiety dictate his actions, he channels his inner voice to articulate his feelings. ‘My boss can be a bit intense, but I’m not in the Hunger Games,’ he reassures himself.

When a challenging question comes from his boss — ‘Johnny, can you explain why this strategy will work?’ — Johnny’s brain jumps into action [18]. His Broca’s area is activated, and begins forming coherent sentences, allowing him to communicate effectively even as his heart races with anxiety [18]. The pressure of the moment can make it challenging to express ideas clearly, but this brain region transforms Johnny’s nervous energy into a well-thought-out response that he is able to articulate while under stress [2, 40]. As worry blossoms into clarity, he can see his boss nodding. Each decision — from managing a tricky conversation with his boss to handling his daily dose of office chaos — is influenced by his inner voice.

Think This Way: Variations in the Inner Voice

While the experiences of Johnny are relatable to most, in certain ‘atypical populations,’ the development and function of the inner voice can vary significantly, creating distinct differences in how individuals process and interact with information [6, 42]. Although the frequency at which people use their inner voice can differ in the general population, those with certain disorders may face unique challenges with inner speech [43, 44]. For example, people with diminished inner speech often perform worse in verbal recall tasks, including rhyme judgment and word list memory tasks [43]. The lack of an inner voice, known as anendophasia, points to possible memory and recall limitations when inner speech is less accessible [43]. One group of people who may experience diminished inner voice are those with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). ASD can be defined as a set of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by a wide variety of communicative and interpersonal behaviors often labeled as divergent from social norms [1, 45]. Children with ASD frequently experience delays in early language development that may extend to disruptions in the maturation of inner speech [46, 47]). Given the role of the inner voice as an internal form of verbal communication, people with ASD may exhibit differences in their inner voice [42]. While little is known about ASD’s influence on inner speech, one study infers that some people with ASD may have a diminished inner voice [42]. When asked to perform a complicated logic task, people with ASD took longer than people without ASD to complete the task. Interestingly, when people without ASD were required to speak continuously while performing the task — an action that suppressed their inner voice — they took longer, increasing their completion times to a level comparable to people with ASD. The results of those with ASD remained largely unchanged during the suppression of inner voice. A decrease in performance when people without ASD suppressed their inner voice indicates that the inner voice is useful in puzzle completion. Furthermore, these results support the hypothesis that some people with ASD may have a diminished inner voice, which could explain why their task completion times were unaltered by inner voice suppression [48]. Ultimately, these findings indicate inner voice is a highly variable factor of people’s internal lives.

When All is Thought and Done

In examining our cognitive abilities, the inner voice stands out as a powerful internal guide — a tool that enhances memory, aids in problem-solving, and plays a critical role in emotional regulation. As we’ve seen through Johnny’s development, this inner voice is more than meaningless meandering; it’s an evolving companion, steering us through life’s complexities efficiently. From early childhood through adulthood, the inner voice transitions from private speech into an essential cognitive asset, driving both thought and self-awareness [6]. Given its importance in various cognitive functions, furthering our understanding of the inner voice is crucial [4]. Future research on inner voice may open new doors to understanding mental health, brain function, and individualized cognitive experiences [1]. Increased dedication to investigating this topic can help us answer questions such as: why do some people seem to lack an inner voice and how do variations in brain function and emotional disorders affect inner speech? This research will not only advance knowledge but also pave the way for therapeutic approaches to support brain health and resilience [49]. A greater understanding of the inner voice can illuminate how this powerful cognitive tool shapes our thoughts, behaviors, and emotional resilience, offering new insights into mental health and the human mind.

Works Cited

1. Alderson-Day, B., & Fernyhough, C. (2015). Inner speech: Development, cognitive functions, phenomenology, and neurobiology. Psychological Bulletin, 141(5), 931–965. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000021

2. Jo, H., Park, C., Lee, E., Lee, J. H., Kim, J., Han, S., Kim, J., Kim, E. J., Kim, E., & Kim, J. (2024). Neural effects of one’s own voice on Self-Talk for emotion regulation. Brain Sciences, 14(7), 637. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14070637

3. Perrone-Bertolotti, M., Rapin, L., Lachaux, J., Baciu, M., & Lœvenbruck, H. (2014). What is that little voice inside my head? Inner speech phenomenology, its role in cognitive performance, and its relation to self-monitoring. Behavioural Brain Research, 261, 220–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2013.12.034

4. Hoffman, B., Schraw, G., & McCrudden, M. T. (2012). Cognitive efficiency. In Springer eBooks (pp. 590–593). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_353

5. Viacheslav, I., Vartanov, A., Bueva, A., & Bronov, O. (2022). The emotional component of inner speech: A pilot exploratory fMRI study. Brain and Cognition, 165, 105939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2022.105939

6. Vissers, C. T. W. M., Tomas, E., & Law, J. (2020). The emergence of inner speech and its measurement in atypically developing children. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00279

7. Prathanee, B., Pongjanyakul, A., & Chano, J. (2008). Thai Speech and Language Test for children between 1 and 2 years of age. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 43(1), 125–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/13682820601181208

8. Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and Language. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

9. Kohlberg, L., Yaeger, J., & Hjertholm, E. (1968). Private Speech: Four studies and a Review of Theories. Child Development, 39(3), 691. https://doi.org/10.2307/1126979

10. Montazeri, M., Hamidi, H., & Hamidi, B. (2015). A closer look at different aspects of private speech in SLA. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 5(3), 478. https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0503.04

11. Sawyer, J. E., & Brooks, P. J. (2021). Sociodramatic play enhances preschoolers’ private speech and motivation across activities. Cognitive Development, 59, 101073. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2021.101073

12. Geva, S., & Fernyhough, C. (2019). A penny for your thoughts: Children’s inner speech and its Neuro-Development. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01708

13. Doebel, S., & Munakata, Y. (2022). Unraveling the nature of children’s self-directed speech: correlates of five- and six-year-olds’ overt and partially covert speech on three tasks. Collabra Psychology, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.57543

14. Winsler, A., De León, J. R., Wallace, B. A., Carlton, M. P., & Willson-Quayle, A. (2003). Private speech in preschool children: developmental stability and change, across-task consistency, and relations with classroom behaviour. Journal of Child Language, 30(3), 583–608. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0305000903005671

15. Alarcón-Rubio, D., Sánchez-Medina, J. A., & Prieto-García, J. R. (2013). Executive function and verbal self-regulation in childhood: Developmental linkages between partially internalized private speech and cognitive flexibility. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 29(2), 95–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2013.11.002

16. Sawyer, J. (2016). I think I can: Preschoolers’ private speech and motivation in playful versus non-playful contexts. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 38, 84–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2016.09.004

17. Stephan, F., Saalbach, H., & Rossi, S. (2020). Inner versus Overt Speech Production: Does This Make a Difference in the Developing Brain? Brain Sciences, 10(12), 939. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci10120939

18. Flinker, A., Korzeniewska, A., Shestyuk, A. Y., Franaszczuk, P. J., Dronkers, N. F., Knight, R. T., & Crone, N. E. (2015). Redefining the role of Broca’s area in speech. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(9), 2871–2875. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1414491112

19. Hertrich, I., Dietrich, S., & Ackermann, H. (2016). The role of the supplementary motor area for speech and language processing. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 68, 602–610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.06.030

20. Barber, L., Reniers, R., & Upthegrove, R. (2021). A review of functional and structural neuroimaging studies to investigate the inner speech model of auditory verbal hallucinations in schizophrenia. Translational Psychiatry, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-021-01670-7

21. Ólafsdóttir, H. F., Bush, D., & Barry, C. (2018). The role of hippocampal replay in memory and planning. Current Biology, 28(1), R37–R50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2017.10.073

22. Van De Ven, V., Waldorp, L., & Christoffels, I. (2020). Hippocampus plays a role in speech feedback processing. NeuroImage, 223, 117319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117319

23. Zhan, L., Guo, D., Chen, G., & Yang, J. (2018). Effects of repetition learning on associative recognition over time: role of the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00277

24. Himmer, L., Schönauer, M., Heib, D. P. J., Schabus, M., & Gais, S. (2019). Rehearsal initiates systems memory consolidation, sleep makes it last. Science Advances, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aav1695

25. Jun, S., Kim, J. S., & Chung, C. K. (2019). Direct stimulation of human hippocampus during verbal associative encoding enhances subsequent memory recollection. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00023

26. Alderson-Day, B., Weis, S., McCarthy-Jones, S., Moseley, P., Smailes, D., & Fernyhough, C. (2015). The brain’s conversation with itself: neural substrates of dialogic inner speech. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 11(1), 110–120. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsv094

27. Tullett, A. M., & Inzlicht, M. (2010). The voice of self-control: Blocking the inner voice increases impulsive responding. Acta Psychologica, 135(2), 252–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2010.07.008

28. Fernyhough, C., & Borghi, A. M. (2023). Inner speech as language process and cognitive tool. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 27(12), 1180–1193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2023.08.014

29. Grandchamp, R., Rapin, L., Perrone-Bertolotti, M., Pichat, C., Haldin, C., Cousin, E., Lachaux, J., Dohen, M., Perrier, P., Garnier, M., Baciu, M., & Lœvenbruck, H. (2019). The ConDiallnt model: condensation, dialogality, and intentionality dimensions of inner speech within a hierarchical predictive control framework. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02019

30. Tilsen, S. (2024). Internal speech is faster than external speech: Evidence for feedback-based temporal control. Cognition, 244, 105713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105713

31. Hertrich, I., Dietrich, S., Blum, C., & Ackermann, H. (2021). The role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex for speech and language processing. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2021.645209

32. Pratts, J., Pobric, G., & Yao, B. (2023). Bridging phenomenology and neural mechanisms of inner speech: ALE meta-analysis on egocentricity and spontaneity in a dual-mechanistic framework. NeuroImage, 282, 120399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2023.120399

33. Gabbott, B., Tennent, D., & Snelgrove, H. (2020). Effect of mental rehearsal on team performance and non-technical skills in surgical teams: systematic review. BJS Open, 4(6), 1062–1071. https://doi.org/10.1002/bjs5.50343

34. Stephane, M., Dzemidzic, M., & Yoon, G. (2021). Keeping the inner voice inside the head, a pilot fMRI study. Brain and Behavior, 11(4). https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.2042

35. Hickok, G. (2013). The role of Broca’s area in language function. In Cambridge University Press eBooks (pp. 341–349). https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511980435.020

36. Rogalsky, C. (2008). Broca’s area, sentence comprehension, and working memory: an fMRI study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 2. https://doi.org/10.3389/neuro.09.014.2008

37. Kozubal, M., Szuster, A., & Wielgopolan, A. (2023). Emotional regulation strategies in daily life: the intensity of emotions and regulation choice. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1218694

38. Racy, F., & Morin, A. (2024). Relationships between Self-Talk, Inner Speech, Mind Wandering, Mindfulness, Self-Concept Clarity, and Self-Regulation in University Students. Behavioral Sciences, 14(1), 55. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14010055

39. Šimić, G., Tkalčić, M., Vukić, V., Mulc, D., Španić, E., Šagud, M., Olucha-Bordonau, F. E., Vukšić, M., & Hof, P. R. (2021). Understanding Emotions: Origins and roles of the amygdala. Biomolecules, 11(6), 823. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom11060823

40. Flinker, A., Korzeniewska, A., Shestyuk, A. Y., Franaszczuk, P. J., Dronkers, N. F., Knight, R. T., & Crone, N. E. (2015b). Redefining the role of Broca’s area in speech. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(9), 2871–2875. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1414491112

41. Okon-Singer, H., Hendler, T., Pessoa, L., & Shackman, A. J. (2015). The neurobiology of emotion–cognition interactions: fundamental questions and strategies for future research. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00058

42. Alderson-Day, B., & Pearson, A. (2023). What can neurodiversity tell us about inner speech, and vice versa? A theoretical perspective. Cortex, 168, 193–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2023.08.008

43. Nedergaard, J. S. K., & Lupyan, G. (2024). Not everybody has an inner voice: Behavioral consequences of anendophasia. Psychological Science. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976241243004

44. Ren, X., Wang, T., & Jarrold, C. (2016). Individual Differences in Frequency of Inner Speech: Differential Relations with Cognitive and Non-cognitive Factors. Frontiers in Psychology, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01675

45. Park, H. R., Lee, J. M., Moon, H. E., Lee, D. S., Kim, B., Kim, J., Kim, D. G., & Paek, S. H. (2016). A short review on the current understanding of autism spectrum disorders. Experimental Neurobiology, 25(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.5607/en.2016.25.1.1

46. Lartseva, A., Dijkstra, T., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2015). Emotional language processing in autism spectrum disorders: a systematic review. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00991

47. Xie, F., Pascual, E., & Oakley, T. (2023). Functional echolalia in autism speech: Verbal formulae and repeated prior utterances as communicative and cognitive strategies. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1010615

48. Wallace, G. L., Silvers, J. A., Martin, A., & Kenworthy, L. E. (2009). Brief Report: Further evidence for inner Speech Deficits in autism Spectrum Disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(12), 1735–1739. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0802-8

49. Smailes, D., Alderson-Day, B., Fernyhough, C., McCarthy-Jones, S., & Dodgson, G. (2015). Tailoring cognitive behavioral therapy to subtypes of Voice-Hearing. Frontiers in Psychology, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01933